technology. I wish to describe how college curricula can evolve to include these
changes. My tools are post-modern theories of adult education and curriculum
Andragogy is the best known theory of adult learning (Knowles, 1980). There
are five major points of Knowles’ theory. Adults are self-directed, have a growing
reservoir of experience to use as a resource for learning, their readiness to learn is
based on perceived need (social context), learning is problem centered (immediate
need), and they are motivated by internal factors (not external). Reacting to criticism,
Knowles clarified his position by stating that andragogy-pedagogy represents a
continuum of learning techniques and is not necessarily related to learner’s age.
This has led many to state that andragogy is technically not a theory of adult
learning. Never-the-less, many agree (Marrian, 1991) that andragogy has changed
the role of the learner in adult education and in human resource development
more than any other force (p. 118).
CAL model, characteristics of adults as learners, builds on Knowles’
andragogy (Cross, 1981). The model presents four principles intended to provide
guidelines for adult education programs. The model has yet to be empirically tested,
but can be used to stimulate research by thinking across and between its categories.
The four principles match my anecdotal classroom experiences1
. The principals are:
(1) Adult learning programs should capitalize on the experience of participants; (2)
1I was instructor for one 4000 level course in fall’98 and spring’99 in the College of Education at UNO.
Both courses involved using information technologies in classrooms.
George North, 28-Apr-99EDCI6992, page 4
Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants;
(3) Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal
development; and (4) Adults should have as much choice as possible in the
availability and organization of learning programs.
Other theories of adult learning are McClusky’s theory of margin, Knox’s
proficiency theory, and Jarvis’ model of the learning process. These are anchored in
the adult’s life situation. Theories that focus on changes in consciousness are
Freire’s consceintation and Mezirow’s perspective transformation.
At least four components of adult learning can be extracted from these
theories (Marrian, 1991). They are: (1) self-direction or autonomy, (2) life experiences
as contests or triggers, (3) reflection or self-conscious monitoring, and (4) action or
expression of what learning occurred (p.124).
Evidence from my own teaching reflects this. When debriefing students at the
end of a semester long class, I asked the question “Where did the real learning take
place?” Typical of the responses I received is: “... the real learning took place when
we were given these projects to do. To me, one actually learns "by doing". You also
learn by making mistakes and learning how to correct those mistakes.” Anecdotal,
but still very interesting how a short answer from this student can hit all four
components of adult learning mentioned above.
The idea of “post-modern” is that of double coding. It indicates that we look
both backward and forward. This is the idea of the post-modern curriculum model
described by William Doll (1993). Doll is suggesting that we move beyond thinking
of curricula as a thing, a course to be traveled, and begin thinking of curricula as a
verb, as in running the course. It is not sufficient for curricula to describe the
George North, 28-Apr-99EDCI6992, page 5
universe. The curricula must itself be an ecological system. It is a necessity to
recognize that diversity and differentiation are commonplace, not exceptional. It is
not enough for a curriculum to recognize a changing university, the design of the
curriculum itself must encompass change. Change is changing.
Doll suggests we must recognize Dewey, Whitehead, Bruner, Beauchamp,
Tiyer and Taylor and at the same time accept that post-modernism is chaotic. Such a
curriculum development process would stress play rather than certain purpose;
chance over certain design; process and performance over a static finished work;
participation of learners; and dispersal and combinations of ideas; a system of action
driven by desire and characterized by indeterminacy. This recognizes that there is no
one way to generate curricula (Hunkins, 1995).
Doll’s model is the Four R’s: richness, recursion, relations, and rigor.
Curriculum creators must constantly question their actions and the results of their
actions. Rigor is being aware of the assumptions and the fact that these assumptions
contain values that influence the process. Rigoris not a step in a process. Rigor
demands that curriculum creators constantly question their actions and the results
of their actions -- it is changing change. Richnessbrings to curriculum development
process all the stakeholders. It is important that teachers, students, and interested
parties from the wider community be responsible because the product reflects its
creators, because the product needs to reflect its community. Recursion is that part of
the development process that supports both stability and change. The general
categories of knowledge may be the same, but the particulars addressed will vary.
Recursion suggests that curriculum design is not disconnected units or even
connected units, rather it is a series of opportunities for students and teachers to
engage in reflection, in constructing meaning. Relationsis a reminder that in
curriculum design we need to think more about the relations between the parts
George North, 28-Apr-99EDCI6992, page 6
